2018). 2020; Xu et al. As stated in the LIB section, recycling is an important CE strategy and is a backstop to avoid landfilling after other strategies have been exhausted. 2020; Gao et al. In 2019, China's EV stock reached 3,810,000, nearly half of the global total and 2.6 times that of the US, and the number of China's EV registrations was 1,204,000, more than half of the global total and almost 4 times that of the US. Conductive medium for the movement of ions between electrodes, Any other component of a cell, can include current collectors, separators, binders, or cell housing, Unit consisting of cathode, anode, electrolyte, and other components detailed above. 2021) and identify strategies to effectively communicate the goals and benefits. ), the development of high recovery rate, low energy consumption and low environmental hazard recycling process has a good commercial prospect. Therefore, further research is required to understand if existing recycling processes will be economically feasible when applied to LIB chemistries with lower or no cobalt content (e.g., LFP). Note that CdTe recycling, which is dominated by CdTe's largest manufacturer and is now in its third commercial-scale design, does recover all materials (Search for First Solar here: https://www.cdp.net/en). From an environmental (LCA) perspective, our literature review has revealed a lack of data describing material constituents for LIB chemistries, battery designs, and manufacturing conditions, which can be used to assess the environmental impact of the CE for LIBs. 38, 7984. Guidelines for design for recycling of c-Si PV modules have been proposed (Norgren, Carpenter, and Heath 2020) and are summarized in SI Section S4.3 for reference for the reader. 2019; Dias et al. This would include strategies such as ways to decrease the price of renewables, improve their performance, or otherwise increase their deployment. As will be elaborated in this article, the CE literature has generally coalesced around the classification of 10 CE strategies, of which recycling is but one. Prevalence (counts) of LIB CE strategies reported in original research publications (columns in top panel) along with corresponding prevalence (percentage) by cathode chemistry in each CE strategy (pie charts in bottom panel). The explosion, combustion and poisonous gas brought on the recovery process are easy to cause casualties. We find that beyond aggregated employment estimates, there is a need for in-depth analysis to create a repository of job profiles and the required expertise and skills to develop an effective PV recycling workforce. 94, 17271738. There are multiple reasons why the development of high-efficiency low-cost recycling beyond the cathode could be beneficial (Dunn et al. For instance, lead-acid batteries have one of the highest recycling rates of any product (99% in the United States) because it is required by regulation, landfills are not allowed to accept them, and consumers do not want a hazardous product in their homes (EPA 1985; SmithBucklin Statistics Group 2019). 2018). Digital platforms are used to implement the virtual battery storage and enable customers to virtually access energy storage services from the LIB systems, which are remotely located (Centrica 2022; Energy Storage News 2022). J. An approach to beneficiation of spent lithium-ion batteries for recovery of materials [Dissertations theses Gradworks]. We note that the PSS business model can help to increase the share of PV owned by low- and medium-income households (OShaughnessy et al. One such challenge is the need for standardized methods to estimate state of charge (SOC), state of health (SOH) and the rest of useful life (RUL). Classifiers and sub-classifiers of LIB and PV publications. As a result, combining mass- and economic-based indicators can help identify more integrated and complete recycling processes which recover both bulk and economically valuable materials from a PV module. Wood Mackenzie projects that the PV repair market could reach a market value of $9 billion USD by 2025 (Wood Mackenzie 2020). Year of publication reflects a journals planned official publication date, even if made available on-line earlier. (2005). A set of solutions to address these issues center on the development of a circular economy shifting from a take-make-waste linear economic model to one that retains the value of materials and products as long as possible, recovering materials at end of life to recirculate back into the economy. A sustainable process for the recovery of anode and cathode materials derived from spent lithium-ion batteries. For example, the cathode is recovered from a spent LIB, relithiated, and reused in a new LIB (Sloop et al. Single-topic research, under-investigating how attributes interact and can lead to trade-offs or synergies. Similarly, the Silicon Valley Toxics Coalition Solar Scorecard uses a points-based ranking system to enable a CE by incentivizing lower toxic material content and increasing transparency on extended producer responsibilities at EOL (Silicon Valley Toxics Coalition (SVTC) 2019). Besides, environmental and economic issues are also prerequisites for LIBs recycling. Intrinsic circularity pertains to improving the circularity of the product itself and is the focus of this review. Novel approach to recover cobalt and lithium from spent lithium-ion battery using oxalic acid. 2021c), Beyond a limited body of literature for specific countries (Randell Environmental Consulting 2016, Song, Hu, Liang, et al. Count of analyzed publications in panels AD is 160 original research publications, panel E is 181 total publications, and panel F is 21 review publications, all of which passed the four screens. (2018) compared three direct physical recovery processes for graphite anode materials from spent LIBs. (2005) reported a recovery rate of over 98% for Cu. We find that several performance-related trade-offs are less frequently studied, such as economic, material availability, and environmental trade-offs, yet are important to achieving the goals of a CE. (2002) reported the acid hydrolysis process of cathode materials with nitric acid, and achieved the recovery of 100% Li and 95% Mn. 2019; Samarukha 2020; Velzquez et al. *The OSTI search was limited to technical reports and not other types of publications. The PV system can potentially be defined as waste after the end of first life when its decommissioned or after the second life (e.g., after repair and reuse). A circle within a cell in a row indicates the operation corresponding to the row is used by the LIB or PV recycler. Publications that passed a given screen were moved on to the next; those that did not pass a screen were excluded from the rest of the study. Waste Manage. For an explanation of the different CE strategies, the stakeholders, information and material flows and the legend used please refer to .Figure 9. Leaching and separation of Co and Mn from electrode materials of spent lithium-ion batteries using hydrochloric acid: Laboratory and pilot scale study. However, currently there is no commercial-scale integrated process to recycle all of the materials both bulk and specialty in a c-Si PV module (Heath et al. Thus, it is necessary to evaluate CE strategies using a holistic systems perspective to assess achievement of ultimate objectives, identify trade-offs in advance to inform decision-making, and align key factors influencing adoption. Lee and Rhee (2003) reported that the solubility of Li and Co was over 95% at 75C by leaching 1M HNO3 and 1.7% H2O2 (V/V) for 0.5 h (Pinna et al., 2016). Physical processes usually include pretreatment and direct recovery of electrode materials. First, because we know that humans (both individuals and within groups) do not use economic rationality or policy prescription solely to make decisions, techniques have been developed within the field of complex systems science to study and better model behavior. For example, some operations use pyrometallurgical recycling in which pre-processing steps are not required, and commercial operations might skip from decommissioning directly to purification. Certain chemistries, components, and applications, de-emphasizing alternative designs, materials, etc. 2019) and preferences (e.g., through interviews and surveys (Daniela-Abigail et al. Although many of these pathways are still relatively new, there is significant potential for deployment and discussion among both industry leaders and CE scholars (Chauhan, Parida, and Dhir 2022). (2017) reported the precipitation of Co3(PO4)2 were separated from the solution containing lithium ions. The electrochemical performance of the regenerated LiFePO4 battery can meet the basic requirements of reuse. (, End-of-life CdTe PV recycling with semiconductor refining, Human health risk assessment methods for PV Part 3 module disposal risks International Energy Agency (IEA) PVPS Task 12. PV installers and utilities who play an important role in informing the standards, regulations, or best practices for decommissioning (EPRI 2018), facilitating the repair and reuse of PV panels, reuse of secondlife LIBs in grid connected applications (Curtis et al. If evaluated EOL LIBs do not meet qualifications for refurbishing, repurposing, or remanufacturing, the next-preferred CE strategy would be recycling. 2020). The treated battery cases, electrodes and membranes containing electrolytes will be treated separately to improve the safety and recovery rate of hydrometallurgical processes and reduce energy consumption during the use of hydrometallurgical or pyrometallurgical recovery electrode materials. Figure 20. In addition to strong inorganic acids, weak phosphoric acid has also proved to be a good solution for acidolysis. Utilizing standardized reporting procedures (PRISMA) allows better contextualization of our research as we identify the common methods, gaps, and potentials for growth in circular economy literature (Santos and D. Silva 2013). 2019), the anode foil, and the anode (Cao et al. 2020). Quality standards evaluated through inspection, cleaning, and testing of components, and processing can bring the component(s) to the level of functionality needed. In view of the above reasons, the recycling of spent LIBs has a considerable prospect and is environmentally friendly, so it is imperative to establish a reasonable recycling system and develop related recycling technologies. Lowering the material intensity of manufacturing and use (Thompson et al. Jha et al. Yet they are, by and large, not economically sustainable in current form and are certainly not at the capacity nor properly sited to have the impact that is needed now and in the near future to support a CE. Variations in properties such as ferromagnetism, density, and hydrophobicity (Wang, Gaustad, and Babbitt 2016) are leveraged to separate the black mass from the coarse fraction (Harper et al. The decision enablers include the different policies that incentivize the CE, and analytical tools, which help quantify the economic and environmental impacts of the CE. Research has demonstrated that materials recovered from PV modules can be reused in: Building materials (Cerchier et al. J. For example, in practice, the cathode (Song, Hu, Chen, et al. Chemosphere 109, 9298. This work was authored in part by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory, operated by Alliance for Sustainable Energy, LLC, for the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) under Contract No. Prod. Hydrometallurgy was mainly aimed at the recovery of Li2CO3 and Co3O4 and had 10,000-ton processing capacity. In order to better develop recycling technology of LIBs, it is best to do the following aspects: (1) Classify LIBs well according to the type of electrode; (2) Do a good job in battery design to make it meet the conditions of easy regeneration; (3) Cooperation on the recovery of spent LIBs and relevant legislative work around the world. This can be attributed to publications typically using mass-based indicators to quantify the amount of materials recovered through PV recycling (Granata et al. doi: 10.1007/s10967-014-3556-5, Nan, J., Han, D., and Zuo, X. 2020, 2016), Remanufacturing (Deng et al. 2016; Lee et al. 3099067 11 Articles, This article is part of the Research Topic, The Methods of Recovering Lithium Ion Batteries, https://doi.org/10.3389/fchem.2020.578044, https://www.zsw-bw.de/en/media-center/data-service.html#c8750, http://www.chyxx.com/industry/201707/543308.html, Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). 2021). 2021; Richard 2011) or have a double glass design (Deng et al. With regard to addressing community concerns, socio-technical research can be particularly helpful. We find a need to account for non-recycling CE strategies in LCAs and TEAs. 2019a). Global society and our planet face many challenges, including climate change, air pollution, finite resources to support growing population and affluence, and equity. What really shakes the lithium resource reserve to promote the development of LIBs is the development of EVs. Blockchain can also help manufacturers meet regulatory requirements (e.g., the European Union's requirement of recycling 70% of the mass of EOL LIBs by 2030) (Halleux 2021), for instance, by sharing LIB details with authorized recyclers, remanufacturers, and refurbishers. The thickness of layers of Cd and Te can be thinned (Krishnakumar et al. Due to residual polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) binder and material decomposition after thousands of charge and discharge cycles, the energy density of recovered LiFePO4 material is low and its electrochemical performance is poor. 2021). 2020; Nirmale, Kale, and Varma 2017; Zhao et al. By continuing you agree to the use of cookies. The electrolyte in the LIBs also contains harmful substances, such as organic solvents and fluorine-containing lithium salts, which may cause great harm to the environment. Cost is the key barrier, which manifests in two forms. Moreover, there can be potential trade-offs between economic, environmental, and social impacts of different CE strategies. R strategy description with examples from a manufacturers and consumers (for R0R2) perspective (adapted from Potting et al. Despite the economic and environmental promise, there are technical and analytical challenges to non-recycling CE strategies for LIB. This article focuses on PV modules because they account for the largest mass component and the largest single hardware cost of the PV system, and they are the most challenging for implementing circular economy strategies. 2022). And Shih et al. J. Taiwan Inst. PV components such as the module and the inverter are typically repowered, whereby these and other decommissioned balance-of-system PV system components can be directly reused, repaired, and then reused or recycled. Advances in the recovering of spent lithium battery compounds. 2020; Walzberg, Carpenter, and Heath 2021; Putri and Kusumastuti 2021; Walzberg et al. Furthermore, costs of repair have only been reported for certain components (e.g., bypass diode, junction boxes) and not others (e.g., backsheets), which calls for more comprehensive research and commercial analyses (Heide et al. In these scenarios, PV provides the largest share of renewable electricity in each future year and scenario, and the largest share of any technology in the decarbonization scenarios (~45%) (DOE 2021). Combination of the pack and other balance of systems components such as battery management system, cooling system, etc. 2017) are also being utilized. Note that Te, Si, and Glass use the y-axis on the left side, whereas all others refer to the y-axis scale on the right side. For example, publications solely discussing material processing improvements for lithium mining or how to recover lithium from wastewater generated in the LIB recycling process were not included as they could apply to other industries. This is because by extending LIB lifetimes, the embodied energy, carbon emissions, cost, labor, etc. Due to the complex assembly process of LIBs and the wide variety of electrodes, it brings great danger for the recovery of battery. The criteria for inclusion at each step can be found in Table 2. doi: 10.1016/S0378-7753(02)00361-0, Chen, J., Li, Q., Song, J., Song, D., Zhang, L., and Shi, X. The research cannot focus solely on LIBs or PV cells built into consumer products. B., Gaines, L., Sullivan, J., and Wang, M. Q. 2019). Nucl. Open circuit voltage characterization of lithium-ion batteries. System disassembly, which occurs during the decommissioning operation, corresponds with the Decommission and Assess operation shown in Figure 10. For second life applications, we find a lack of clarity on how electrical, building, and fire regulations will apply to second life LIBs in grid and non-grid applications (Curtis et al. R&D project evaluation and project portfolio selection by a new interval type-2 fuzzy optimization approach.
These operations typically occur sequentially from top down, however some recyclers perform them in different orders or can skip certain operations based on their specific process and target materials. There are many types of commercial LIBs, mainly including lithium oxides and phosphides, such as LiCoO2, LiMn2O4, LiFePO4, NCM, etc. 2021). 326, 7786. L-FZ organized and wrote the manuscript. That is because the sources of renewable energy are regenerative and constantly replenished, thus not depleting finite resources, and are supportive of a CE. Yet, current literatures overwhelming emphasis on recycling is somewhat misdirected. However, due to the different technical difficulties and economic benefits, the development stage of recycling process is not the same. Improve recycling technologies. From a social drivers perspective, there is a lack of a robust understanding of customer attitudes (e.g., public perception and awareness towards PV recycling) (Daniela-Abigail et al. doi: 10.1016/S0304-386X(02)00167-6, Lee, S. K., and Lee, S. H. J. N. (2000). Potential social impacts that would benefit from further investigation include the creation of employment opportunities, decrease in energy poverty through lowering the cost barriers to access PV (e.g., secondary PV modules), and prevention of environmental release of hazardous materials (Mies and Gold 2021; Vanhuyse et al. (Note: Results from SPVs conservative scenario are shown). So further research and investment is inevitable. For example, potential future regulations restricting import and export of metal scraps such as aluminum and copper could lead to a need for increased capacity in local recycling operations for the aluminum and copper contained in the PV module (Reuters 2020; S & P Global Commodity Insights 2021). 2018), Metal organic frameworks (Cognet et al. 2018). Different DfC options that have been explored to-date include using environmentally benign alternatives to hazardous materials (e.g., tin-bismuth instead of lead solders) (De Rose et al. 2021; Li and An 2019; Tammaro et al. Here, we found concerns that dematerialization poses trade-offs in other life cycle phases and to other CE strategies. 2021b). 215, 398402. For 3 g untreated positive electrode materials, the total process consumption of recovering cobalt oxalate was $0.59 and $0.67 for acid leaching and baking processes, respectively. Silver can be both reduced in weight per module and substituted (e.g., with copper) (VDMA 2021).
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