The malformations have been prevented by coadministration of thyroxine (Emmerling, 1978). P.K. Standard shipping rates and handling fees apply. The malformations produced by ETU exposure in vivo were those expected as a result of thyroid insufficiency. Propamocarb, sold as Banol and Previcur, is effective against Pythium, Phytophthora, downy mildews, some rusts, and others.
Production of an unusual fatty acid was later reported in mycelial cells of Oomycetes. Strains resistant to TBZ are however generally also resistant to thiophanate-methyl (Kawchuk et al., 1994; Holley and Kawchuk, 1996). ), dictamnus (Origanum dictamnus L.), and marjoram (Origanum majorana L.) essential oils inhibited completely the growth of F. coeruleum (Daferera et al., 2003) whereas lavender (Lavandula angustifolia Mill. Bromoethane and rindite, chemicals used for breaking tuber dormancy, were reported to have no significant effect on dry rot development (Coleman and Murphy, 1990). It is also important to think about preventative measures to stop the spread of blight. Table 3.
mohamed tpri pesticides smallholder blight incidences Potato dumps and volunteers in neighbouring fields are important sources. Fenoxaprop (Acclaim) has been determined to be an effective replacement for the arsenates. These fungicides alter thyroid hormone levels and/or weights. When heated to decomposition or on contact with acids or acid fumes, it may produce highly toxic chloride fumes; deadly phosgene gas may be formed. Locally absorbed penetrant-type fungicides are represented by three fungicides, which control nine diseases, and the three systemic fungicides control two diseases, respectively. The dicarboximides are classed among the contact fungicides which are generally applied prophylactically. Insecticides for Turfgrass Insect Pests. In the 1950s, the organic mercury compound Semesan Bel was found to be very effective to control dry rot. The disease spreads rapidly in warm, moist conditions which, when they occur, are known as Blight Periods. Structures of each of these insecticides and the pests they control are given in Table 47.3. Finch, G.P.F. Different studies conducted on 2-imidazolidinethione, a plant metabolite of fungicide maneb, and other related fungicides such as mancozeb, showed different malformations in different species of experimental animals. For the most efficacious control of crabgrass and annual grasses, the preemergence herbicides need to be applied prior to the germination of the annual grass seeds. Twenty years later other chemicals were introduced to control potato tuber diseases in particular the benzimidazole fungicide thiabendazole (TBZ) (Leach and Nielsen, 1975). Low limits of detection (0.010.94ng/mL) and quantification (0.033.12ng/mL) were readily achieved for all tested pesticides. The compounds inhibit spore germination, but less strongly than mycelia development. Economoul, Botitsi, Antoniou, and Tsipi (2009) reported a multi-residue LC/MS/MS method for detection, confirmation and quantification of forty-six pesticides and transformation products in wines.
Essential oils and other plant extracts are promising alternatives to synthetic chemical fungicides for control of potato dry rot but further investigation is needed. The loss of efficacy of TBZ, mainly because of the increase in resistant Fusarium isolates, has led to the exploration of alternative chemicals for postharvest control of potato dry rot (Table 3). The principal target organ upon repeated exposure to EBDCs is the thyroid.
hydrochloride fungicide pesticide chinese Environmentally stressed turfgrass is prone to disease and pest attack, and turf pest management is a necessity. This is the worst fungal disease which attacks the potato crop. The carbamic acid class of fungicides includes dithiocarbamates (ferbam, thiram, ziram, propamocarb, etc.) Major Turfgrass Diseases, Pest Insects/Nematodes, and Weeds as Determined by Problem Intensity ( 10% Occurrence)a. Contact/protectant fungicides act at the plant surface and reduce infestation. Contact with active metals or nitrides causes the release of flammable, and potentially explosive, hydrogen gas.
propamocarb hydrochloride tomatoes potatoes alrahman sherif abd dissipation residue curve Proplant Fungicide (Propamocarb hydrochloride). Some of the systemic fungicides may provide season-long control from a single preplant application. A common programme is to use propamocarb mixtures early in the season with follow-up sprays of newer materials such as cymoxanil, cyazofamid, amisulbrom, ametoctradin, fenamidone and zoxamide. With repeated ingestion, there is a possibility of cutaneous effects, alopecia and a risk of antithyroid effects, especially with maneb. Spray intervals range from 7 to 14days depending on material used and pressure of disease. LC was performed with a mobile-phase gradient and detection was by electrospray mass spectrometry in a positive ionization mode. Among these fungicides, mancozeb, thiophanate-methyl, metiram, and fludioxonil are registered in Canada as seed treatments (CRAAQ, 2009). From: Plant Pathology (Fifth Edition), 2005, M. Kilian, U. Steiner, in Encyclopedia of Rose Science, 2003. Moreover clove (Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merrill & Perry) and palmarose (Cymbopogon martinii (Roxb.) Upwardly mobile penetrant fungicides include the benzanalides, benzimiazoles, sterol inhibitors (demethylation inhibiting), and strobilurins. A substantial number of diseases, pests, and weeds damage turfgrass and impair its ability to function properly in the recreational activity that it was intended to provide. The carbamic acid class of fungicides includes dithiocarbamates (ferbam, thiram, ziram, propamocarb) and ethylenebisdithiocarbamates (EBDCs) such as maneb, mancozeb, zineb, nabam, metiram, etc. The fungicide is xylem-mobile and can be used as drench, soil incorporation, dip or foliar spray. Exposure to ETU at the critical stages of pregnancy produced malformations in rats, predominantly those of the CNS.
They include gangrene, silver scurf, dry rot, skin spot and stem canker (Table6.2). Carvone vapors prevented dry rot caused by F. sulphureum but not by F. solani (Gorris et al., 1994; Hartmans et al., 1995). Ethylenethiuram monosulfide, the degradation product of the fungicide maneb, and parent compounds such as zineb and maneb, were teratogenic in rats but not in mice (Vergieva, 1984). Application of fludioxonil as seed tuber treatment was shown to reduce the inoculum potential of soil surrounding the progeny tubers by affecting the spread of the pathogen from infected seed tubers (Bains et al., 1999, 2001). These fungicides alter thyroid hormone levels and/or weights. Thus, timing of application is critical and should be made 14 weeks before expected seed germination. This group includes fosetyl-Al, metalaxyl, and propamocarb. Such fungicides include PCNB, metalaxyl, triadimefon, ethazol, and propamocarb. Additionally the glutathione system is suggested to be a target of the dicarboximides because in vitro the fungicides inhibit the glutathione synthetase. It readily degrades to phosphoric acid and carbon dioxide in water, soil and plants. Halofenozide and imidacloprid, which both possess novel chemistry and no cross-resistance to previously used insecticides, appear to be highly effective and amenable to resistance and integrated pest management schemes. Sagratini, Maes, Giardin, Damiani, and Pic (2007) developed an analysis method to detect carbamates and phenylurea pesticide residues in fruit juices by using SPME coupled with LC/MS and LC/QIT-MS. Several organic and non-organic salts were shown to inhibit mycelial growth and spore germination of F. sambucinum and F. solani var. Preemergence herbicides are effective control agents for several weeks to months on most annual grass weeds. J. Marshall Clark, Michael P. Kenna, in Hayes' Handbook of Pesticide Toxicology (Third Edition), 2010. et Link. Currently, there is a soil fumigant (Curfew) that is registered for use on golf courses in Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Texas. Taylor, Hird, Sykes, and Startin (2004) reported a LC/MS method for the determination of propamocarb residues in wine. Gupta, in Reproductive and Developmental Toxicology, 2011. In some cases, foliar diseases (e.g., downy mildews and rusts) can be controlled by incorporating the fungicide (e.g., metalaxyl, triadimenol) into the fertilizer and applying them together before planting. Ferbam increased the incidence of soft tissue and skeletal abnormalities in rats but not in mice. 9-31A and 9-31D) that release the chemical 612 inches deep into the soil and the treated area is covered immediately with plastic (Figs. Another GRAS compound, sodium silicate, showed a fungitoxic activity against F. sulphureum in vitro and contributed to limit dry rot lesions in vivo (Li et al., 2009a). Highly volatile chemicals are applied to the soil with tractors dragging devices equipped with chisels (Figs. There are two products commonly used as nematicides, fenamiphos (Nemacur) and ethoprop (Mocap), both of which are classified as organophosphates. Highly soluble in water. Home Proplant Fungicide (Propamocarb hydrochloride). Growers can then respond by an application of fungicides; a wide range is available. Damage by Hyperodes weevils (annual bluegrass weevil) is commonly found on turf in the northeast United States, whereas fire ant and mole cricket damage is usually associated with the southeastern region. Combinations of fludioxonil+cyprodinil have also been reported to be effective as postharvest treatment while fludioxonil alone showed variable efficacy (Daami-Remadi et al., 2006b, 2010). Other diseases of potatoes are mainly seed-borne and can be controlled by treating seed with fungicides, e.g. TBZ+imazalil showed variable efficacy (Carnegie et al., 1998). The type and intensity of insect damage is highly regional. In all reports of resistance to TBZ, F. sambucinum had the greater proportion of resistant-strains, from 42 to 100% of tested strains (Hide et al., 1992; Kawchuk et al., 1994; Hanson et al., 1996; Platt, 1997; Ocamb et al., 2007; Gachango et al., 2012). We use cookies to help provide and enhance our service and tailor content and ads. Implementation of integrated turfgrass management practices and advances in alternative pest management strategies are providing new information on how best to manage turf facilities with minimal use of pesticides and reduced environmental hazard associated with their application. Most fungicides have a protectant and systemic action and are effective if sprayed regularly with the leaves being well covered. The primary postemergence herbicides for grass weed control in turfgrass are the arsenates [e.g., methylarsonic acid (MSMA), disodium methylarsonate (DSMA), and amine methanearsonate (AMA)]. A common programme is to use, Hayes' Handbook of Pesticide Toxicology (Third Edition), University of Massachusetts-Extension, 1999, Golf Course Superintendents Association of America (GCSAA), 1998, Golf Course Superintendents Association of America (1998), Penetrant fungicides are absorbed by the plant to provide their control. If applied, however, nematicides should not be used where contamination of potable or groundwater may occur. Penetrant fungicides are absorbed by the plant to provide their control. Odorless to faint aromatic odor. Other combinations of fungicides including prochloraz Mn+tolclofos-methyl (Carnegie et al., 1998), chlorothalonil+propamocarb, and cymoxanil+mancozeb (Daami-Remadi et al., 2010) showed variable efficacy. Table 47.2 lists some of the most widely utilized contact/protectant fungicides on turfgrass, their structures, and the diseases they commonly control. Aqueous extracts of cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum J. Presl) also provided inhibition of mycelial growth of F. sambucinum and reduced severity of potato dry rot (Mvuemba et al., 2009). It has an active ingredient, 1,3-dichloropropene, which is highly volatile and must be applied by authorized operators. By continuing you agree to the use of cookies. Granular materials and low-volatility liquid pesticides either are broadcast on the soil and then disked into the soil (Fig. and Phytophthora spp. The reproductive system is generally unaffected by exposure to EBDCs {common metabolite, ethylenethiourea (ETU)}. Leakage out of the mycelium can be inhibited by the addition of sterols. The use of irrigation in the summer usually triggers a Blight Period and a spray programme should be started soon after. In general, carbamic acid derivatives, except nabam, have low or moderate acute toxicity via the oral, dermal and respiratory routes. 9-31A and 9-31B) to keep the chemical from escaping prematurely. Control of emerged grass seedlings is usually achieved by the application of arsenates, such as MSMA, but these postemergence herbicides can injure turfgrass, particularly when applied during hot weather. Turf can become infested with annual and perennial grasses (not the planted cultivar) and broadleaf plants that are controlled by the use of various herbicides. As mentioned previously, proper turfgrass management can minimize some of these problems in terms of the intensity and frequency of the damage. Tin compounds used to be available for killing spores which fell on the soil before they reached the tubers, but are now no longer approved. However, some discrepancies in reported efficacy have arisen such as imazalil reported both effective (Hide and Cayley, 1980, 1985) and ineffective (Carnegie et al., 1998) as a postharvest treatment. Lastly, there are the more systemic penetrant fungicides for control of the oomycete diseases such Pythium blight. Occasionally, hepatic degeneration, ascites, enteritis, and hydrothorax have been observed (Lorgue et al., 1996). The presence of plant parasitic nematodes, by themselves, is not sufficient justification for application of nematicides. Reject and waste potatoes should be deeply buried and volunteers should be killed off in other crops before they become a source of infection. As of 1998, 2,4-D was still the most widely used herbicide on turf (26% of total active ingredient applied), followed by glyphosate (11%), mecoprop (9%), pendimethalin (8%), MSMA (8%), triazines (6%), chlorothalonil (5%), benfin (3%), dicamba (2%), and other herbicides (19%) (Aspelin and Grube, 1999). To reduce the risk of spores spreading from the leaves to the tubers, the haulms should be destroyed when about 70% have been killed by blight; this is especially important if heavy rain is expected (Table6.2). Carcinogenicity[83]: EPA, Not likely to be carcinogenic to humans. Volatile chemicals (fumigants) are often used to fumigate the soil before planting for reducing the inoculum of nematodes, fungi, and bacteria. Recovery of propamocarb hydrochloride from wine spiked before dilution was in the range from 91 to 115%.
On histopathology, hepatic, renal and pulmonary congestion is common. Commercial product can be a soluble concentrate that may be mixed with water and used as a spray. Among GRAS compounds, plant essential oils have shown in vitro activity against some Fusarium spp. Multi-site mode of action prevents resistance problem. The mass spectrometry analyses were carried out by using electrospray ionization (ESI) source operating in the positive mode both for single quadrupole and for QIT mass analysers, operating in selected ion monitoring (SIM) and in multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) modes, respectively. Anglique Bojanowski, Russell J. Tweddell, in Postharvest Biology and Technology, 2013. GEORGE N. AGRIOS, in Plant Pathology (Fifth Edition), 2005. The main features of toxicity include anorexia, diarrhea, and flatulence followed by neurological effects, ataxia, muscular contractions and prostration. and some efficacy to reduce dry rot disease in vivo. Structures of each fungicide and the diseases that they control are given in Table 47.2. The powerful features of LC/MS, such as high efficient separation, identification, and quantification of polar analytes, make this technique very attractive to the field of pesticide residue analysis. Significant matrix effects observed for most of the pesticides tested were eliminated by using matrix-matched standards. Mice and rabbits are less sensitive. It induces sensitization in a MagnussonKligman maximization test. Protective and systemic fungicides have also been applied to the soil (and to the foliage) through irrigation water (fungigation) for the control of soilborne diseases. Ammonium sulfate, magnesium sulfate, potassium sulfate, sodium sulfate, sodium carbonate, sodium bicarbonate, aluminum chloride, and calcium and potassium phosphites also reduced significantly the disease under laboratory conditions (Mecteau et al., 2002, 2008; Lobato et al., 2008; Kolaei et al., 2012). Among these salts, potassium metabisulfite and sodium metabisulfite provided 100% inhibition of dry rot under laboratory conditions (Kolaei et al., 2012). Following application, the preemergence herbicides need to be watered in and the soil should not be disturbed during the target weed seed germination interval. Variable efficacy (+/); effective (+); ineffective (). ScienceDirect is a registered trademark of Elsevier B.V. ScienceDirect is a registered trademark of Elsevier B.V. Penetrant fungicides usually maintain control for much longer periods of time (1421 days or longer) compared with contact/protectant fungicides and can move into new tissues during growth of the plant. Effects on cell division have been reported but the main metabolic pathways are not distrubed, or only to a small degree. Rabbits and mice were resistant to oral doses, whereas cleft palate, tail and digital defects, and anal atresia were observed in hamster embryos (Teramoto et al., 1978). Germinated spores developed short and stumpy germ tubes; the cell wall structure is altered in the region of the hyphal tips that are still growing.
Resistance to fludioxonil has been recently reported in F. sambucinum and F. coeruleum in Canada (Peters et al., 2008c) and in F. sambucinum and F. oxysporum in Michigan (Gachango et al., 2011b, 2012). This group includes fosetyl-Al, metalaxyl, and, Multi-residue detection of pesticides in juice and fruit wine: A review of extraction and detection methods, reported a LC/MS method for the determination of, Economoul, Botitsi, Antoniou, and Tsipi (2009), Sagratini, Maes, Giardin, Damiani, and Pic (2007), Radui, Gruji, Vasiljevi, and Lauevi (2009), Hide et al., 1992; Kawchuk et al., 1994; Hanson et al., 1996; Platt, 1997; Ocamb et al., 2007; Gachango et al., 2012, Hanson et al., 1996; Satyaprasad et al., 1997; Ocamb et al., 2007; Gachango et al., 2012. Table 47.2. Chitosan and -aminobutyric acid applications were also reported to reduce the lesion diameter of potato tuber inoculated with F. sulphureum and F. solani. Application of TBZ+futriafol (Daami-Remadi et al., 2010) and TBZ+2-aminobutane (Carnegie et al., 1990) was reported effective against dry rot (Table 3). Propamocarb is nonirritating to the eyes or skin. This low in vitro toxicity has been interpreted as an indication that antifungal activity is indirect and host defence reactions are stimulated. Vacuolar changes in various tissues including choroid plexus in the brain and reduction in organ weights have been observed in rats and dogs. Cineole and menthol vapors reduced markedly the rot in tubers inoculated with two strains of F. sambucinum (Vaughn and Spencer, 1994). Unlikely to bioaccumulate in marine organisms. Disturbances in cell wall synthesis occur, associated with an outflow of cytoplasm. Registered for use in the U.S. tomato 2.0ppm; tomato, paste 5.0ppm; tomato, puree 1.0ppm. Control of nuisance aquatic weeds in lakes and ponds associated with parks and golf courses are also subjected to herbicide treatment. May form explosive materials with phosphorus pentachloride. Carbamates are incompatible with reducing agents, strong acids, oxidizing acids, peroxides, and bases. Thiophanate-methyl (a benzimidazole fungicide) seed tuber piece treatment is used in Canada to control the disease. Radui, Gruji, Vasiljevi, and Lauevi (2009) developed a HPLC/MS/MS method for the analysis of pesticides in fruit juices. It is very difficult, if not impossible, to maintain turfgrass in highly managed settings without fungicides. Fungicides for treating seed tubers are also used to control dry rot (Table 3). Locally absorbed fungicides, including chloroneb, iprodione, and vinclozolin, are absorbed into the leaf tissue and remain close to their point of entry. Gonzalez et al. ), rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis L.), sage (Salvia fruticosa Mill. Common development and reproductive abnormalities include reduction in copulation index (female rats) and BW, retardation in ossification (rat), and increased postimplantation loss (rabbit) (JMPR, 2005). However, turfgrass is established and maintained usually with a single or few cultivars and in many cases in less than optimal environments. These herbicides and some additional compounds used for weed control on turfgrass, along with their structures and effective weed targets, are given in Table 47.4. Crabgrass germination occurs when the soil temperature is maintained at least at 65F (18C) for at least 1 week, and the monitoring of soil temperature is an efficient way to time the application. In order to improve the control of the disease and to maintain, when possible, the efficacy of TBZ through preventing the development of resistance, postharvest application of fungicide mixtures has also been tested (Table 3). In addition, high populations of nematodes can coexist with limited damage on turf, making the justification of application difficult. Fludioxonil alone or in combination with mancozeb as seed tuber treatment was reported effective against dry rot (Wharton et al., 2007). TBZ was largely used until resistant strains to TBZ appeared in the late 1980s (Langerfeld, 1986; Tivoli et al., 1986b).
Highly systemic for quick absorption and translocation. The following sections on disease, pest, and weed management are condensed largely from the Professional Guide for IPM in Turf (University of Massachusetts-Extension, 1999), 1998 Plant Protection and Fertilizer Usage Report [Golf Course Superintendents Association of America (GCSAA), 1998], and Racke (2000). This would indicate possible increase in resistant isolates although factors such as mode of application, concentration of the fungicide, timing of application, initial fungal inoculum prior to fungicide application and other conditions can explain the variable effects of the treatments. The control of grass weeds is primarily accomplished by the application of preemergence herbicides (e.g., benzamide, ethofumesate, pendimethalin, prodiamine, oxadiazon, bensulide, dithiopyr, and simazine). Proplantfungicide prevents and cures many Pythium diseases, including damping-off, cottony blight, grease spot and root rot. Proportion of TBZ-resistant isolates varied greatly by species and origin sites. Baohui Jin, Guofang Pang, in Food Research International, 2012. coeruleum in vitro (Mecteau et al., 2002, 2008; Kolaei et al., 2012). Increases in enzyme activities and phenol and lignin contents associated with induced resistance mechanism were also observed in chitosan and -aminobutyric treated potatoes (Sun et al., 2008; Li et al., 2009b; Olivieri et al., 2009; Yin et al., 2010). Recent studies have suggested that their mode of action is via their effect on lipid peroxidation and the inhibition of transport-associated phosphorylation of glucose. imazalil, flutolanil, and pencycuron. Phosphoric acid is considered to be the active and systemic principle through disruption of phospolipid metabolism. and EDBCs (maneb, mancozeb, zineb, nabam, metiram, etc.). The average recoveries were in the range between 70 and 110% for most of the compounds tested. Metiram (Leach and Nielsen, 1975), mancozeb alone (Leach and Nielsen, 1975; Cwalina-Ambroziak and Czajka, 2006) or in combination with thiophanate-methyl or flutolanil (Wharton et al., 2007) were also reported effective.
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